Centralia Pennsylvania

 
The 450 Report
by Dr. Fullerm of the Susquehanna University

INTRODUCTION

DEMOGRAPHICS

Location

Population

Figure 1.  Centralia in 1983 (www.centraliapa.com).
 

Figure 2.  Centralia Today (www.offroaders.com).

In 1990, all 63 Centralia residents were white.  Forty-five residents claimed single ancestry, and 21 claimed multiple ancestry.  The three biggest ethnicities under the single ancestry designation were Irish (15), Lithuanian (9), and German (8).  Other ethnicities listed included Arab, English, Polish, Norwegian, Ukrainian, and Swiss.  English was the language spoken at all homes, and two households spoke in Slavic languages as well (U.S. Census Bureau, 1990).

            Most people living in Centralia in 1990 were above the age of 20 and married.  The three most populated age groups were 56-59 years (8 residents), 35-39 years (6 residents), and 65-69 years (5 residents).  Seven residents were under the age of 18 (U.S. Census Bureau, 1990).

Education

            In 1990, three persons 3 years or older were enrolled in public elementary or high school, and 5 people were enrolled in a public college.  Nine people 25 years or older had an educational attainment of less than 9^th grade.  Twenty-two people in Centralia had gone to high school but received no diploma, and 24 people were high school graduates.  No one living in Centralia in 1990 over the age of 18 had received a college degree (U.S. Census Bureau, 1990). 

Military Service

            In 1990, nine veterans between the ages of 16 and 64 lived in Centralia.  Three of these veterans served during the Vietnam era, Korean conflict, but no World War II.  Three different veterans served from February 1955 to July 1964 only, and three veterans served only in World War II (U.S. Census Bureau, 1990).

Industry/Employment

The three biggest industries for which Centralians worked in 1990 were manufacture of durable goods, manufacture of non-durable goods, and mining (outside of the Borough).  By 1993, there were no employees working in mining in Centralia or in Columbia County (The Pennsylvania Marketing & Planning Center, 2000).

The three most popular occupations for Centralia residents were precision production, craft, and repair occupations; machine operators, assemblers, and inspectors; and transportation and material moving occupations.  In 1990, 17 residents worked outside of Columbia County and 7 residents worked within their county of residence.  No residents took public transportation to work.  Most residents worked approximately 10-14 minutes away from their house (U.S. Census Bureau, 1990).

The median household income in Centralia in 1989 was $16, 667.  Four people in 1989 were earning incomes below the poverty level (U.S. Census Bureau, 1990).  Since 1990, the unemployment rate in Columbia County has mirrored that of Northeastern PA (the latter being slightly higher) and of Pennsylvania and the United States as a whole (PA and US being slightly lower).  Columbia County’s unemployment rate for August 2000 was 4.3%, down 0.8% from the previous month (The Pennsylvania Marketing & Planning Center, 2000).

Housing & Living Structure

 In 1990, there were 36 total housing units. Thirty-one of these housing units were occupied, and 5 were vacant. Twenty-seven of the occupied housing units were owner-occupied, and 4 were renter-occupied. All owner-occupied housing units had a value of less than $99, 999. The median value for these units was $33,300 (U.S. Census Bureau, 1990).

All 5 vacant housing units were not boarded up. One vacant housing unit was up for rent in 1990, and had been up for rent for 6 or more months. Those units that were rented had a rent of less than $199 per month (U.S. Census Bureau, 1990). All other vacant units had been vacant for either less than two months, or for six months or more (U.S. Census Bureau, 1990).

The majority of housing units in Centralia were built prior to 1939 (23 out of 36). The remaining structures were built from 1970-1979, 1950-1959, or 1940-1949. In 1990, two of the vacant housing units were built in 1970-1979 and 5 were built prior to 1939 (U.S. Census Bureau, 1990). Most of these housing units are “rowhouses”.

Sixteen of 28 householders moved into their house prior to 1959. Two householders moved into their units from 1989 to March 1990, and ten householders moved into Centralia between 1960 and 1979, the period when the Centralia mine fire was discovered and efforts were made to extinguish it.

As of 1990, all 36 residences got their water supply from a public system or a private company, and all 36 residences had access to a public sewer system. House heating fuels used included electricity, fuel oil, kerosene, and coal or coke. There were complete plumbing facilities in all residences and all remaining vacant housing units. No houses were mortgaged in 1990 in Centralia (U.S. Census Bureau, 1990).
 

HISTORY OF THE MINE FIRE IN CENTRALIA

            The history of the underground mine fire at Centralia really begins with the mining rights in the 1950’s.  In 1951 Coates Coal Company purchased the subsurface areas of Centralia.  These subsurface rights were eventually transferred to Centralia and the Centralia School District.  In 1965 the school district conveyed its ownership of these rights to the Borough of Centralia (658 A.2d 840; 1995). 

            In early 1962 the Borough of Centralia decided to make a landfill behind a cemetery in an abandoned strip mine.  This permit for this landfill was issued on June 20, 1962.  On May 29, 1962 the borough of Centralia decided to unofficially burn the landfill to improve the appearance, smell and remove any rats present.  Volunteer fire fighters were present to control this fire.  They thought the fire had been under control and was extinguished, but on May 29 flames and smoke were noticed at the landfill.  The fire department tried to put out the fire again, but was unsuccessful (Dekok, 16-22).  Figure 3 shows the anatomy of a mine fire.     

There were two offers to put out the mine fire that were refused by the Department of Mines and Mineral Industries even though these offers were very cheap and had good chance being successful.  The first attempt to officially put out the fire began on August 22,1962 by Edward Bridy.  He was given approximately $20,000 for this excavation and was told not to do exploratory drilling to find the edge of the fire.  Instead he was given dimensions to excavate.  This only fed air to fire and the project was terminated on October 29, 1962 (Dekok, 39-40). 

Figure 3.  The anatomy of a mine fire. 

            Later that year in November a flushing project began by K and H Excavating.  This project was terminated before completion on March 15, 1963 because the project ran out of funding after spending $42,420 (Dekok, 40).

            In April of 1963, three projects to extinguish the fire were proposed and rejected by the Secretary of Mines.  A trench project began on July 9, 1963 with a budget of 36,225.  This project was terminated when the fire was discovered on both sides of the trench (Dekok, 48-49).

            The Appalachian Regional Commission on June 8, 1965 approved a larger project with two phases and an estimated cost of $2,525,000.  This project would include backfilling the landfill, flushing, and excavation a trench.  This would require the relocation of some of the houses in Centralia.  The drilling began for this project on May 8, 1967 by Empire Contracting.  When the project ran out of money, the plans for the trench changed to a half circle instead of completely surrounding the fire.  This project was eventually canceled because of a lack of funding, probably related to cost benefit factors (Dekok, 56-61). 

            The next attempt at blocking the mine fire was a fly ash barrier constructed by Stearns Service Corporation of Nanticoke on May 5, 1969 costing $518,840.  The fly ash barrier was much cheaper than total excavation of the fire, but was not proven to be the most effective method of extinguishing the fire.  The residents in the town also started to notice a lack of Oxygen in their houses and high temperatures were discovered in some of the yards.  The government bought the first three houses in Centralia because of the high temperatures and gases found in the houses.  A small trench was started in the summer 1969 that would meet up with the fly ash barrier.  This trench ended before eight of the houses in Centralia.  During the process of digging out the trench the fire was uncovered.  The funding ran out after the fire was exposed and the order was given to back fill the hole (Dekok, 70-77).

            Everyone seemed to forget about the fire until the fly ash barrier started to fail.  In 1973 an emergency $250,000 was appropriated by the Appalachian Regional Commission.  This money was used to repair the fly ash barrier and to drill 53 monitoring wells (Dekok, 81). 

              Work began in May 1978 on a project, funded by the Department of Environmental Resources, to locate the leak in the fly ash barrier and to repair this leak.  This project cost $429,550.  During this project two pits were backfilled.  This was a mistake because these pits were obviously updrafts, when they were filled gases could no longer escape and gases instead began to seep into houses (Dekok, 91).

            Around this time the Appalachian Regional Commission began to consider constructing another limited trench.  This trench would pick up where the previous trench left off.  In order for this trench to be constructed twenty-five houses and a church would have to be moved.  The funds for this project never materialized and a new project was created.  This project was a super flush barrier.  The money for this project came from the Appalachian Regional Commission and the U.S. Office of Surface Mining.  It was determined that a trench was no longer feasible (Dekok, 95-99).

            The locations of the projects that have been implemented up to this time by both state and federal agencies are shown in Figure 4 (GAI Consultants).  The next step in the Centralia project was the relocation of the houses in Centralia because the fire had become too large to be economically feasible to control.  The projected extent of the fire is shown in Figure 5 (GAI Consultants).  By 1982 the U.S. Office of Surface Mining had acquired 34 of the impacted properties.  The Department of Environmental Resources also initiated an air quality

monitoring program.  By 1983 the U.S. Office of Surface Mining estimated that $663 million would be needed to completely extinguish the fire.  In 1984 the U.S. Congress appropriated $42 million to purchase houses and businesses impacted by the mine fire (subsidence and toxic gases).  This was a completely voluntary relocation project.  Between 1985 and 1992 545 residences and businesses moved.  In 1992 condemnation processes began against the remaining 53 residences (DEP, 1996). 

Subsidence also began to show along Route 61.  Penn DOT stabilized the road at a cost of $0.5 million.  In 1993 Route 61 was closed permanently due to more subsidence (DEP, 1996).  Figure 6 shows old Route 61 as it is today. 

Figure 6.  Old Route 61.

As of right now in Centralia there are still 36 residences and the fire is continuing to spread.  No legal action has been taken against the remaining families.  The plan for extinguishing the fire is to let it burn out on its own because excavation will cost too much money. 

STATE & FEDERAL AGENCY INVOLVEMENT

            Numerous governmental agencies have been involved (or are currently involved) in Centralia.  Whether it is eminent domain proceedings, scientific research, or relocation assistance, both state and federal agencies have had a large presence in the borough ever since the mine fire was discovered in May of 1962.  Please see Table 1 for a brief history of state and federal agencies’ involvement with Centralia:

COAL MINES

History

            Coal mining has been a major source of fossil fuel in the United States throughout its history.  Pennsylvania began coal mining in the mid-1700s, and by 1977, it had mined one third of the nation's coal.  By the 1800s, Pennsylvania coal was fueling the industrial growth of the country and was the primary fuel source for Western Pennsylvania’s steel industry. Anthracite and bituminous coal production peaked in 1918 with a combined production of 276 million tons. (DEP 2000)  Anthracite is purer and burns hotter and longer than the bituminous.  Pennsylvania was such a force in the coal industry because most of its veins were in fact anthracitic.  Between the Delaware and the Susquehanna rivers, represent all the anthracite coal in the United States, this covers an area of 488 square miles (Ohio State 2000).  The reason that this state was able to support such a mining effort is because of the Mammoth and Buck Mountain Seams. The Buck Mountain area consists of 2400 acres.  Centralia is located over the Western Middle Anthracite Field (see Figure 7), specifically the Buck Mountain, Seven-Foot, Skidmore, Mammoth, Mammoth Leader, Four-Foot, Bottom-Split Holmes, Primrose Leader, and Primrose Coal Seams.  These first six named seams run entirely through the borough of Centralia, with the remaining four forming the nose of a syncline in the south-western corner of the borough (see Figure 8). 

Mining here commenced from its settlement in 1842 and continued through the 1900s until 1963 when coal mining as a whole ceased to be a prominent source of fuel. (Couch 2000)  Many coal companies were present in the area, beginning with the Centralia Colliery in 1862, the Continental Colliery in 1863, Locust run Colliery in 1867, but the most prominent was Lehigh Valley Coal Company.  This New York based firm held control of the Centralia Mine until

1925. A decline in the business and many bootleg operations had lessened the demand for coal and the mine was closed.  The Centralia Mining Company (or the Birtley Coal Company) reopened the Centralia Mine in 1935 under Ed Whitney.  At this time a stripping pit was mined, which later would be the site for the garbage disposal area where the refuse ignited.  In 1955, the Rooster Company bought the mine, and then eventually sold it to Coates Coal Company in 1962.  In this year the Germantown park Coal Company owned the rights to the minerals and surface.  The Jeddo-Highland Coal Company leased the surface rights, while the mineral rights were leased to the Susquehanna Coal Company.  Jeddo-Highland commenced with strip mining the area, and Susquehanna undertook the deep mining of the area.  In 1963 mining here ceased, leaving a sizable pit (75 feet wide and 50 feet deep).  (DEP 2000)

Process of Mining

The coal measures lie on a floor of conglomerate rock, which rises about them on all sides like the sides of a basin, and is exposed on the slopes and summits of the mountains surrounding the coal regions.  The thickness of the coal beds varies from 1 foot to 32 feet, and that of the rock from a few feet to 200. The coal beds are pretty regularly distributed throughout the coal measures, and their presence in a certain place can generally be calculated upon (Ohio State 2000).

Coal can be mined in two ways, through the surface (strip mining) or by burrowing through the layers of earth (underground mining).  Strip mining which involves the removal of topsoil and subsoil first and then the coal and overburden are removed, is practiced mostly in the flat topography of the western US.  Strip mining accounts for 60 percent of the coal now produced in the US.  The other 40 percent is from underground mining though in the past underground mining was the dominate method.  This second technique involves the approaching of the seam either vertically or horizontally, is practiced in the uneven landscape of the Appalachian mountain states. (ACF 2000)  Underground mining is done either through drifts, dug horizontally into the seam, or shafts, vertical digging through overburden slanting down from the surface to the seam (ACF 2000).  Structures of these collieries included drift, tunnel, slope, and shaft.  Drift was a tunnel driven into the side of the seam from its outcrop straight on, and since it was tilted slightly upward, it drained itself.  A tunnel was the same as a drift but driven into the rock at a right angle, therefore meeting the seam inside the mountain.  The slope was driven down into the seam where the dip was located.  The shaft intersected the vein from straight above so the coal could be mined from all sides. (Wallace 1987) 

In deep mines, such as the one that existed in Centralia, the seam that was being mined had to be supported.  This was done by leaving columns of coal in pace for support, commonly referred to as the “room and pillar” method (ACF 1987).  Another method of support used was to put into place large timbers from the floor to the ceiling of the mine.  Coal was removed from the mines by mule-drawn carts, or by carts that followed a natural downward slope out of the shaft. Centralia had its share of both methods of mining, an outcrop was strip mined in the mid thirties, but in the area where the fire is concentrated, the underground mines were prevalent.  In the Depression years, many bootleg mine shafts appeared in the area of and surrounding Centralia.  These were shafts that were hand dug into the side of the vein and the miner and coal brought out in buckets.  This dangerous form of mining went unregulated for the most part and caused and increased amount of shaft openings in the area. 

Mine Fires

The burning of coal produces certain emissions including- sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and carbon dioxide. (USGS 2000)  The percentages of each element vary with the mineral composition of the coal.  These may pose a potential health threat.  When mine fires exist, there is no accurate way to measure the amounts of emissions escaping from the site.  Mine fires can also be the cause of hazardous subsidence in some areas.

Subsidence

Subsidence is a major threat to the safety of people here, and is very visible, especially in the vicinity of Old Route 61 as seen in Figure 9.

Figure 9.  Subsidence evident at Old Route 61.

In 1981, a boy ventured near a hole that was opening in the ground as a result of subsidence.  He fell into the hole and was eventually rescued by his cousin (Couch 2000).  Such an incident as this is a major hazard of subsidence.   Mine Subsidence Insurance may be available for homeowners living in areas where mines are either in operation or have been abandoned.  This is not included in funds for reclamation, but the application is provided on the site.  Mine subsidence is defined by the DEP as movements of the ground surface as a result of the collapse or failure of underground mine workings.  There are different kinds of subsidence, the most common being sinkhole subsidence which occurs in areas overlying underground mines which are close to the surface.  Another kind of subsidence that results from mining is called trough subsidence.  This occurs when the overburden sags downward due to the failure of mine pillars resulting in a large, shallow depression on the ground in an elliptical or circular shape.  Horizontal ground movements may also be associated with this type of subsidence.  Insurance will cover any property damage caused by subsidence of the ground due to mine cave-ins, fires and other hazards (Mine Subsidence Insurance, DEP).  If the building has not sustained earlier damage from mine subsidence it is possible for a homeowner to receive monetary aid from the Mine Subsidence Insurance Fund.  In 1966 a law was passed declaring that in the bituminous underground coal mining area operators were liable for mine subsidence damage to dwellings and structures.  This law was amended in 1994.  However, as the people of Centralia do not really own the property they are living on, as the government has repossessed it, it is doubtful they are eligible for any mine insurance.  Also the risk of damage that may be caused by mine subsidence and the mine fire are so high in that area that coverage would be impossible for the people to secure.  They have chosen to live in such a high-risk area and therefor have moved to the nuisance and assumed all risks brought by it.

Other Sites of Mine Fires

Mine fires are not unique to Centralia, but are found throughout the state, country, and even the world. The oldest known continuously burning underground mine fire is in New South Wales, Australia. They think the fire started when lightning struck an outcrop of coal near the surface of the ground. This fire has been burning for over 2,000 years (Times News Online 1999).

Around the world underground mine fires rage.  Some countries turn to the US for help in dealing with them.  A prime example of this is Steve Jones of the DEP, who has recently had the primary task to field train Indonesian mining personnel in mine fire characterization, control and extinguishment techniques. While on assignment in Kalimantan (formerly Borneo), he supervised the exploratory drilling of two fires near the towns of Balikpapan and Samarinda and the extinguishment of five fires near Samarinda. The fires were threatening the stability of the only road serving Balikpapan, Samarinda and Bontang.

Two of the fires also threatened the stability and safety of nearby homes, a mosque and an elementary school. The fire near the elementary school was visited by Governor Suwarna of the Province of East Kalimantan. (DEP 2000)  Other fires rage in China, however these are far to deep and extensive to put out (Jones 2000). 

Even throughout the US mine fires are not uncommon.  Some examples include: Consolidation Coal Company's Loveridge No. 22 Mine, Miracle Run Portal located in West Virginia (underground coal), that began in June 22,1999; Oxbow Mining Incorporated's Sanborn Creek Mine, located near Somerset, Colorado (Underground Coal) began January 26, 1999; and on Wednesday, November 25, 1998 at approximately 6:20 PM, a mine fire occurred at the Cyprus Plateau Mining Corporation's Willow Creek Mine, which is located near Price, Utah.  The accident occurred near the longwall tailgate area during normal coal production.  No injuries resulted from the incident, however, several longwall crew members were knocked down by the ensuing rush of air.  An orange colored flame was observed in the gob that appeared to move toward the face area and then back into the gob. (MSHA 2000)

At this time, 45 underground mine fires are burning in the state of Pennsylvania.  Fires that occurred within the state include: Fayette County is home to the Percy Mine fire which has been burning for over thirty years (Glover 1998).  There is a possible mine fire burning in Archabald, PA near the Valley View High School.  A brush fire has ignited the underground root system of the trees. The ground is smoldering and it looks like the center of the brush fire was an old stripping.  A fire has just been discovered burning in a culm bank near Wayne Street in Carbondale, PA.  OSM people are on scene and a trench is being dug by heavy equipment around the fire. This fire has been burning off of Dundaff Street in Carbondale since before the 1960's.  In the 60's people got sick from the carbon monoxide gas and I believe one person died. Close to 600 families had to move out of the neighborhood over the years because of this fire.  It is still burning and the site being worked by heavy equipment.  Also in Carbondale, PA this fire is thought to be out. It was starting in culm banks at the former Powderly Colliery.  This site has been dug up and watered down and no sign of fire has been detected for about two years.  The fire may have spread to underground coal seams and evidence of it may not be visible.  A mine fire has been detected in the Borough of Beaver Brook near Hazleton. The mine fire started when garbage dumped in a stripping pit was set on fire.  Officials from the Office of Surface Mining called in heavy equipment to try to dig up the fire.  It is not known at this time if the fire has spread to coal seams (PA Mine Fire Facts 2000).  Letcher County is home to another mine fire, one that started over 20 years ago, but many local reports trace it back to the 1920s.  This spring, the federal Office of Surface Mining hired workers who spent more than four months and $140,000 to keep the fire from spreading below one family's cemetery. They succeeded, but couldn't completely stop the slow-burning fire. (Williams 2000)

Mine Remediation

Mine fires still occur today in working mines.  The Mine Safety and Heath Association is responsible for the prevention and extermination of mine fires.  Today they dispatch mine emergency personnel with a mine command vehicle, a mobile infrared monitoring vehicle, as well as a mobile air analysis laboratory to the inflamed mine.  A typical response to put out the fire is to simply seal off the mine preventing any oxygen to feed the fire.  Boreholes may also be drilled into the ground to monitor gases in various locations around the fire.  In some cases inert gases and other materials such as a mixture of fly ash and concrete may in injected into the mine in an attempt to smother the fire (Mine Safety and Health Association, 2000).

In the 1960’s the government appropriated $3.3 million to put out Centralia's fire.  They did not have all of this technology, such as the mobile air analysis lab, but they did try to seal off the mine and blew large quantities of fly ash and concrete into it in an attempt to smother the fire (DEP Centralia Mine Fire Chronology, 1998).  Unfortunately this was too little too late and the fire was unable to be controlled.  This was probably due to the large numbers of bootleg mine shafts in the area.  During the great depression coal was in great demand and families began to mine their own coal, armed with a shovel and a pickax.  This was an extremely dangerous profession, as the mining company would often blow up a bootleg mine in an attempt to prevent the theft of their coal.  However, the bootleg coal was in such demand that by the height of the great depression trucks ran back and forth from Centralia to Philadelphia, New Jersey and even New York City carrying as much as 4 tons of coal.  This resulted in hundreds of mine shafts feeding air into the fire.  There are so many of them it would cost billions of dollars to plug them all, that is if they can even all be found.  Some have been located under houses and businesses that have been prior to the 1930s and even some later structures hide the whereabouts of these vents (DEP 2000).

In 1983 the United States Office of Surface Mining estimated that $663 million would be required to extinguish the fire.  That cost continues to rise as the fire spreads and gains strength.   Total costs that have been spent on relocation amount to $30,802,640.  The average costs spent per household or business is around $51,529 (DEP Centralia Mine Fire Chronology, 1998).

            Today the government is involved in demolition of vacant structures, population relocation and public works administration.  The Department of Environmental Protection also issues an annual Environmental Impact statement, which consists of quarterly on-site monitoring of the fire (DEP Centralia Mine Fire Chronology, 1998).  However, the population relocation consists of sending monthly notices to the remaining residents informing them that their homes have been repossessed and they are to move out.  No real action has been taken in to relocate the remaining families.  Most abandoned structures have been demolished, but residence can pay to reclaim their property and keep some structure on it.  One women pays $6/year in property taxes to retain the right to her land and maintain a small shed, which is all that remains standing on her property, which is now the site of a research project being performed by the Susquehanna University Science departments.

Mine Reclamation

            Mine reclamation was not even considered at the time Centralia mining industry went under.  The mines and shafts were simply abandoned by the mining companies.  This is why the town was able to use one of the shafts as a dump, which inevitably resulted in the mine fire we have today.

            Because of situations like this, as well as acid mine drainage and other problems caused by abandoned mines, the Bureau of Mining and Reclamation has been founded.  The Bureau is under the States Department of Environmental Protection and is housed in the Rachel Carson Office Building in Harrisburg, Pa. 

            They are in charge of the Growing Greener Grants, which provide money to clean up acid mine drainage, restore watersheds, preserve farmland and open spaces as well as for the maintenance of State Parks and the provision of new and upgraded water and sewage treatment facilities.  Reclaim Pa, a program that maximizes the reclamation of Pennsylvania’s mines also falls under their responsibility.  Mine Subsidence Insurance is provided on their website, as they are responsible for providing help and information on this topic.  The Act 54 Report is a report on current mining impacts on streams, buildings and other areas.  They are also responsible for resolving mine fires, mine subsidence, high walls and other hazards that have resulted from past mining practices, and for abating and treating acid mine drainage (DEP).

            The Growing Greener Grants are issued by the federal government and provides $650 million dollars for the next five years to clean up abandoned mines, restore watersheds, preserve farmland and protect open spaces as well as maintain State Parks and provide new and upgraded water and sewage systems.  As one may guess, the money is stretched thinly over these diverse areas.  However, the restoration on abandoned mines can be tied into the other areas that the grant provides funding for.

            Also, in restoring the mines one can increase the number of open spaces, as trees and grasses will be the first species to take over the land.  Eventually one can even promote farming by allowing farmers to graze their cattle on the slopes of the reclaimed mines.  Also, reduction in the acidity of the water flowing into a reservoir will decrease the amount of treatment it will have to undergo to remove minerals and other toxins released from the mine.  This will decrease the work the water treatment facility will have to do, decreasing the cost to run it and freeing up funding for other areas.

            Reclamation Pa is designed to deal with the millions of acres of abandoned mines that exist in Pennsylvania.  It is the collective term for the concepts the DEP has developed to make abandoned mine reclamation more efficient and easier.  It includes legislative, policy, and management initiatives that have been designed to enhance mine reclamation efforts of operators, volunteers and the DEP.  The organization has four objectives, which are listed below.

1)     To encourage private and public participation in the reclamation effort.

2)     To improve communication between reclamation partners, thus improving the efficiency of the act.

3)     Increase reclamation by reducing the remaining risks

4)     Maximize funding for reclamation by expanding existing sources and exploring new ones (Mineral Resources Webmaster, 2000)

Pennsylvania’s actual comprehensive plan for abandoned mine reclamation was issued June of 1997 and revised in June of 1998.  Governor Tom Ridge and Secretary Jim Seif are credited with its creation.  The Comprehensive plan includes all of those acts mentioned above.  The purpose of the plan was to establish a framework for organization.  Coordination is needed between the different organizations involved in the reclamation effort and areas had to be designated for funding according to their importance.  For some reason Centralia is not included in that list of important mine fires that received funding.  The plan is meant to be used as a guide or framework for the organization of the reclamation funding for the entire state of Pennsylvania.  All groups are meant to comply with the plan and take part in it.  The goals of the plan are listed below:

1.      To focus expenditures for the reclamation abandoned mine lands on maximizing benefits.

2.      To develop partnerships involving local citizens, local government and other groups that promote abandoned mine reclamation.

3.      To develop long-term funding sources that would allow for long-term planning and long-term funding commitments.

4.      To encourage the development and use of innovative technologies that reduces the cost of reclamation.

5.      To develop an aerial approach to reclamation planning that will result in reclamation and rehabilitation of an entire geographical area.

6.      To coordinate the activities of the Abandoned Mine Land program with the Mine Regulatory program so that active mine operators are encouraged to re-mine and reclaim where possible.

7.      To insure that property owners who allow the use of their lands for long-term treatment of abandoned mine drainage are not subject to personal or environmental liabilities because of the projects. (Ridge, Tom 1998).

There are also a series of guidelines for the awarding of Abandoned Mine Reclamation Grants were established in May of 1996 by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection’s Bureau of Abandoned Mine Reclamation.  Grants must meet certain qualifications in order to be approved.  They must have an approved rehabilitation plan and be submitted by a municipality, a municipal authority, such as the town mayor, or an incorporated nonprofit organization.  The grant may not be used for the administrative costs encored during the reclamation project.  It can and should be used for project development, design, construction and other directly related expenses.  In a hydraulic area, the biology of the stream must also be improved through the completion of the project in order for the plan to receive funding (Bureau of Abandoned Mine Reclamation Grants).  Once these criteria are met the application for the grant may be submitted and the necessary fund may be appropriated for the completion of the project. 

Mine Subsidence Insurance may be available for homeowners living in areas where mines are either in operation or have been abandoned.  This is not included in funds for reclamation, but the application is provided on the site.  Mine subsidence is defined by the DEP as movements of the ground surface as a result of the collapse or failure of underground mine workings.  There are different kinds of subsidence, the most common being sinkhole subsidence which occurs in areas overlying underground mines which are close to the surface, see Figure 10.

Figure 10.  Sinkhole subsidence (DEP, Mine Subsidence, 2000).

Another kind of subsidence that results from mining is called trough subsidence.  This occurs when the overburden sags downward due to the failure of mine pillars resulting in a large, shallow depression on the ground in an elliptical or circular shape.  Horizontal ground movements may also be associated with this type of subsidence.  See Figure 11 for a diagram of mine subsidence.

Figure 11.  Diagram of mine subsidence (DEP, Mine Subsidence, 2000).

Insurance will cover any property damage caused by subsidence of the ground due to mine cave-ins, fires and other hazards (Mine Subsidence Insurance, DEP).  If the building has not sustained earlier damage from mine subsidence it is possible for a homeowner to receive monetary aid from the Mine Subsidence Insurance Fund. In 1966 a law was passed declaring that in the bituminous underground coal mining area operators were liable for mine subsidence damage to dwellings and structures.  This law was amended in 1994.  However, as the people of Centralia do not really own the property they are living on, as the government has repossessed it, it is doubtful they are eligible for any mine insurance.  Also the risk of damage that may be caused by mine subsidence and the mine fire are so high in that area that coverage would be impossible for the people to secure.  They have chosen to live in such a high-risk area and therefor have moved to the nuisance and assumed all risks brought by it.

Background of Mineral Rights

            According to West's, a mineral right is an interest in minerals in the land, with or without ownership of the surface.  It also includes the right to take minerals from the land or to receive a royalty.  This term covers possession interests, entrance rights, and occupation.  Such rights can be sold or leased, and can exist with stipulations on certain permissions.  (Volume 7, 1998)  C.J.S. goes further in its definition to include that it is the right of those occupying the land to work it, which entailed deep excavations or open workings.  It put in its definition that the rights include whatever was necessary to beneficial enjoyment, such as the right to dig, or construct slopes or entries. It also includes the right to some or all of the minerals present, depending on specifications.  The locator of the minerals can lay claim to a new discovery or can claim those mineral that have for some reason been forfeited or abandoned.  The locator can also include an agent who makes a claim on behalf of someone else, or could be a group of people rather than just an individual.  Although not specified as a requirement in statues, minerals are usually discovered before a location is claimed.  Date of discovery is the most important aspect and in case of dispute, it is what is used for settlement.  If someone enters a land that appears to be vacant, they then have exclusive rights to any discovery they make there.  However, this last part is not applicable in the case of the government and persons claiming under it.  Relocation was defined as the appropriation of mining ground that has been forfeited or abandoned.  For this claim to hold, the lands must not be public and the prior rights of the original locator have for some reason been terminated.  (Volume 58, 1992)  However, when referring to location of the mine, the term "mining title" is used.  Generally, it can be said that if one owns the surface, then they in turn own all mines and minerals that might occur below it.  Minerals held within the ground are considered property and covered under those rights, and once they are mined, they are considered personal property.  Coals mining regulatory statues, especially surface and reclamation, have been covered by the individual state.  These have been upheld as constitutional, and are usually constructed in such a way that they are consistent with the federal acts and regulations.  Certain statutes exist that give authoritative bodies certain powers, such as the prevention of waste.  However, these powers are limited by state statues and must coincide with individual's rights.  Also, mine owners have the same responsibilities as property owners when it comes to personal injury incurred in their mine area.  They are to be held responsible if damage to water quality, flooding of the land or mine, or removal of the lateral supports should occur.  However, if the mineral rights are severed from surface rights, then the mine owners could be considered exempt from liability.  (C.J.S. Vol. 58, 1992)

Mineral Rights In Centralia

            According to the May 1, 1995 Commonwealth Court of Pennsylvania decision Borough of Centralia v. The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, et. al., a 1951 resolution “provided for subsurface areas to be purchased by Coates Coal Company, which in turn would convey all but two of those areas to Centralia and the Centralia School District.  The resolution received necessary court approval in the School District of Centralia Borough”.  Fourteen years later, the Centralia School District conveyed its ownership interest in the subsurface areas to Centralia (658 A.2d 840, 1995).

            In this same court case, Centralia appeals the previous Columbia Court of Common Pleas decision that said the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania did not engage in “de facto” taking of the coal under the Borough by condemnation.  The Commonwealth Court affirms this decision, saying that “No party has presently restricted Centralia’s right to mine.  There is no allegation that Centralia cannot now mine the subsurface areas it owns because surface areas will be taken and residents will be relocated.  Nor can it be established at this point that Centralia will cease to exist or will be definitely prevented from mining it in the future” (658 A. 2d 840, 1995).  However, the decision becomes complex as in a previous paragraph the Court states that Centralia’s mineral rights would be “transferred to the township in which Centralia is located upon any annulment of Centralia’s character” (658 A. 2d 840, 1995).  It is thus our understanding that Centralia may lose its coal rights if the Borough of Centralia goes defunct – that is, if everyone moves out.

SURFACE MINING CONTROL AND RECLAMATION ACT OF 1977 (SMCRA)

            The Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (SMCRA) “states a need for balance between protection of the environment and agricultural productivity and the nation’s need for coal as an essential source of energy” (AGRIPEDIA, 2000).  According to ACRIPEDIA, Congress finds and declares in this act that:

¨      Prime farmland cannot be mined unless it can be restored to an equivalent or higher level of yield.

¨      Land must be returned to the approximate original contour and land must be restored to a condition capable of supporting the pre-mining land use or a higher or better use.

¨      Variances give permission to vary, with justification, from the letter of the law or regulation.  Example:  Permitted if post-mining use would improve the watershed.

¨      Each state is to assume authority for the program.  They must establish a mechanism for declaring lands unsuitable for mining if their reclamation is not technologically or economically feasible, contrary to local land use plans, or if the mining affects fragile or historic lands.

¨      An “orphan lands” fund is created.  Orphan lands are those lands that were mined in the past and improperly reclaimed (All bulleted information from AGRIPEDIA, 2000).